nobel prize

[AjayKumar.Kataram]

hai all

In 1968, a Nobel Prize of economic sciences was established by Riksbank, the Swedish bank, in celebration of its 300th anniversary. The prize was awarded for the first time in 1969.

Physiology or Medicine
Australians Barry J. Marshall and J. Robin Warren won "for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease." (See also: Past winners in Physiology or Medicine.)
Physics
American Roy J. Glauber won "for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence," and American John L. Hall and German Theodor W. Hänsch won "for their contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique." (See also: Past winners in Physics.)
Chemistry
French Yves Chauvin, and Americans Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. Schrock won "for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis." (See also: Past winners in Chemistry.)

Peace
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and its Director General, Egyptian Mohamed ElBaradei won "for their efforts to prevent nuclear energy from being used for military purposes and to ensure that nuclear energy for peaceful purposes is used in the safest possible way." (See also: Past winners for Peace.)
Literature
English playwright Harold Pinter won the prize for "uncovering the precipice under everyday prattle and forcing entry into oppression's closed rooms." (See also: Past winners for Literature.)
Industrialist With a Conscience


Nobel Prize for Literature Nobel Prize for Peace
1901
René F. A. Sully Prudhomme (France)
1902
Theodor Mommsen (Germany)
1903
Björnstjerne Björnson (Norway)
1904
Frédéric Mistral (France) and José Echegaray (Spain)
1905
Henryk Sienkiewicz (Poland)
1906
Giosuè Carducci (Italy)
1907
Rudyard Kipling (U.K.)
1908
Rudolf Eucken (Germany)
1909
Selma Lagerlöf (Sweden)
1910
Paul von Heyse (Germany)
1911
Maurice Maeterlinck (Belgium)
1912
Gerhart Hauptmann (Germany)
1913
Rabindranath Tagore (India)
1915
Romain Rolland (France)
1916
Verner von Heidenstam (Sweden)
1917
Karl Gjellerup (Denmark) and Henrik Pontoppidan (Denmark)
1919
Carl Spitteler (Switzerland)
1920
Knut Hamsun (Norway)
1921
Anatole France (France)
1922
Jacinto Benavente (Spain)
1923
William B. Yeats (Ireland)
1924
Wladyslaw Reymont (Poland)
1925
George Bernard Shaw (Ireland)
1926
Grazia Deledda (Italy)
1927
Henri Bergson (France)
1928
Sigrid Undset (Norway)
1929
Thomas Mann (Germany)
1930
Sinclair Lewis (U.S.)
1931
Erik A. Karlfeldt (Sweden)
1932
John Galsworthy (U.K.)
1933
Ivan G. Bunin (Russia)
1934
Luigi Pirandello (Italy)
1936
Eugene O'Neill (U.S.)
1937
Roger Martin du Gard (France)
1938
Pearl S. Buck (U.S.)
1939
Frans Eemil Sillanpää ( Finland)
1944
Johannes V. Jensen (Denmark)
1945
Gabriela Mistral (Chile)
1946
Hermann Hesse (Switzerland)
1947
André Gide (France)
1948
Thomas Stearns Eliot (U.K.)
1949
William Faulkner (U.S.)
1950
Bertrand Russell (U.K.)
1951
Pär Lagerkvist (Sweden)
1952
François Mauriac (France)
1953
Sir Winston Churchill (U.K.)
1954
Ernest Hemingway (U.S.)
1955
Halldór Kiljan Laxness (Iceland)
1956
Juan Ramón Jiménez (Spain)
1957
Albert Camus (France)
1958
Boris Pasternak (U.S.S.R.) (declined)
1959
Salvatore Quasimodo (Italy)
1960
St. John Perse (Alexis St.-Léger Léger) (France)
1961
Ivo Andric (Yugoslavia)
1962
John Steinbeck (U.S.)
1963
Giorgios Seferis (Seferiades) (Greece)
1964
Jean-Paul Sartre (France) (declined)
1965
Mikhail Sholokhov (U.S.S.R.)
1966
Shmuel Yosef Agnon (Israel) and Nelly Sachs (Sweden)
1967
Miguel Angel Asturias (Guatemala)
1968
Yasunari Kawabata (Japan)
1969
Samuel Beckett (Ireland)
1970
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (U.S.S.R.)
1971
Pablo Neruda (Chile)
1972
Heinrich Böll (Germany)
1973
Patrick White (Australia)
1974
Eyvind Johnson and Harry Martinson (both Sweden)
1975
Eugenio Montale (Italy)
1976
Saul Bellow (U.S.)
1977
Vicente Aleixandre (Spain)
1978
Isaac Bashevis Singer (U.S.)
1979
Odysseus Elytis (Greece)
1980
Czeslaw Milosz (U.S.)
1981
Elias Canetti (Bulgaria)
1982
Gabriel García Márquez (Colombia)
1983
William Golding (U.K.)
1984
Jaroslav Seifert (Czechoslovakia)
1985
Claude Simon (France)
1986
Wole Soyinka (Nigeria)
1987
Joseph Brodsky (U.S.)
1988
Naguib Mahfouz (Egypt)
1989
Camilo José Cela (Spain)
1990
Octavio Paz (Mexico)
1991
Nadine Gordimer (South Africa )
1992
Derek Walcott (St. Lucia)
1993
Toni Morrison (U.S.)
1994
Kenzaburo Oe (Japan)
1995
Seamus Heaney (Ireland)
1996
Wislawa Szymborska (Poland)
1997
Dario Fo (Italy)
1998
José Saramago (Portugal)
1999
Günter Grass (Germany)
2000
Gao Xingjian (China)
2001
V. S. Naipaul (UK)
2002
Imre Kertész (Hungary)
2003
J. M. Coetzee (South Africa )
2004
Elfriede Jelinek (Austria) 1901
Henri Dunant (Switzerland); Frederick Passy (France)
1902
Elie Ducommun and Albert Gobat (Switzerland)
1903
Sir William R. Cremer (U.K.)
1904
Institut de Droit International (Belgium)
1905
Bertha von Suttner (Austria)
1906
Theodore Roosevelt (U.S.)
1907
Ernesto T. Moneta (Italy) and Louis Renault (France)
1908
Klas P. Arnoldson (Sweden) and Frederik Bajer (Denmark)
1909
Auguste M. F. Beernaert (Belgium) and Baron Paul H. B. B. d'Estournelles de Constant de Rebecque (France)
1910
Bureau International Permanent de la Paix (Switzerland)
1911
Tobias M. C. Asser (Holland) and Alfred H. Fried (Austria)
1912
Elihu Root (U.S.)
1913
Henri La Fontaine (Belgium)
1917
International Red Cross
1919
Woodrow Wilson (U.S.)
1920
Léon Bourgeois (France)
1921
Karl H. Branting (Sweden) and Christian L. Lange (Norway)
1922
Fridtjof Nansen (Norway)
1925
Sir Austen Chamberlain (U.K.) and Charles G. Dawes (U.S.)
1926
Aristide Briand (France) and Gustav Stresemann (Germany)
1927
Ferdinand Buisson (France) and Ludwig Quidde (Germany)
1929
Frank B. Kellogg (U.S.)
1930
Lars Olaf Nathan Söderblom (Sweden)
1931
Jane Addams and Nicholas M. Butler (U.S.)
1933
Sir Norman Angell (U.K.)
1934
Arthur Henderson (U.K.)
1935
Karl von Ossietzky (Germany)
1936
Carlos de S. Lamas (Argentina)
1937
Lord Cecil of Chelwood (U.K.)
1938
Office International Nansen pour les Réfugiés (Switzerland)
1944
International Red Cross
1945
Cordell Hull (U.S.)
1946
Emily G. Balch and John R. Mott (U.S.)
1947
American Friends Service Committee (U.S.) and British Society of Friends' Service Council (U.K.)
1949
Lord John Boyd Orr (Scotland)
1950
Ralph J. Bunche (U.S.)
1951
Léon Jouhaux (France)
1952
Albert Schweitzer (French Equatorial Africa)
1953
George C. Marshall (U.S.)
1954
Office of U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees
1957
Lester B. Pearson (Canada)
1958
Rev. Dominique Georges Henri Pire (Belgium)
1959
Philip John Noel-Baker (U.K.)
1960
Albert John Luthuli (South Africa )
1961
Dag Hammarskjöld (Sweden)
1962
Linus Pauling (U.S.)
1963
Intl. Comm. of Red Cross; League of Red Cross Societies (both Geneva)
1964
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (U.S.)
1965
UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund)
1968
René Cassin (France)
1969
International Labor Organization
1970
Norman E. Borlaug (U.S.)
1971
Willy Brandt (West Germany )
1973
Henry A. Kissinger (U.S.); Le Duc Tho (North Vietnam)1
1974
Eisaku Sato (Japan); Sean MacBride (Ireland)
1975
Andrei D. Sakharov (U.S.S.R.)
1976
Mairead Corrigan and Betty Williams (both Northern Ireland)
1977
Amnesty International
1978
Menachem Begin (Israel) and Anwar el-Sadat (Egypt)
1979
Mother Teresa of Calcutta (India)
1980
Adolfo Pérez Esquivel (Argentina)
1981
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
1982
Alva Myrdal (Sweden) and Alfonso García
Robles (Mexico)
1983
Lech Walesa (Poland)
1984
Bishop Desmond Tutu (South Africa )
1985
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War
1986
Elie Wiesel (U.S.)
1987
Oscar Arias Sánchez (Costa Rica)
1988
U.N. Peacekeeping Forces
1989
Dalai Lama (Tibet)
1990
Mikhail S. Gorbachev (U.S.S.R.)
1991
Daw Aung San Suu Kyi (Burma)
1992
Rigoberta Menchú (Guatemala)
1993
F. W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela (both South Africa )
1994
Yasir Arafat (Palestine), Shimon Peres, and Yitzhak Rabin (both Israel)
1995
Joseph Rotblat and Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs (U.K.)
1996
Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo and José Ramos-Horta (East Timor)
1997
International Campaign to Ban Landmines and Jody Williams (U.S.)
1998
John Hume and David Trimble (Northern Ireland)
1999
Doctors without Borders (France)
2000
Kim Dae Jung (South Korea)
2001
United Nations and Kofi Annan
2002
Jimmy Carter (U.S.)
2003
Shirin Ebadi (Iran)
2004
Wangari Maathai (Kenya)

Nobel Prize for Economic Science Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
1969
Ragnar Frisch (Norway) and Jan Tinbergen (Netherlands), for work in econometrics (application of mathematics and statistical methods to economic theories and problems)
1970
Paul A. Samuelson (U.S.), for efforts to raise the level of scientific analysis in economic theory
1971
Simon Kuznets (U.S.), for developing concept of using a country's gross national product to determine its economic growth
1972
Kenneth J. Arrow (U.S.) and Sir John R. Hicks (U.K.), for theories that help to assess business risk and government economic and welfare policies
1973
Wassily Leontief (U.S.), for devising the input-output technique to determine how different sectors of an economy interact
1974
Gunnar Myrdal (Sweden) and Friedrich A. von Hayek (U.K.), for pioneering analysis of the interdependence of economic, social, and institutional phenomena
1975
Leonid V. Kantorovich (U.S.S.R.) and Tjalling C. Koopmans (U.S.), for work on the theory of optimum allocation of resources
1976
Milton Friedman (U.S.), for work in consumption analysis and monetary history and theory, and for demonstration of complexity of stabilization policy
1977
Bertil Ohlin (Sweden) and James E. Meade (U.K.), for contributions to theory of international trade and international capital movements
1978
Herbert A. Simon (U.S.), for research into the decision-making process within economic organizations
1979
Sir Arthur Lewis (U.K.) and Theodore Schultz (U.S.), for work on economic problems of developing nations
1980
Lawrence R. Klein (U.S.), for developing models for forecasting economic trends and shaping policies to deal with them
1981
James Tobin (U.S.), for analyses of financial markets and their influence on spending and saving by families and businesses
1982
George J. Stigler (U.S.), for work on government regulation in the economy and the functioning of industry
1983
Gerard Debreu (U.S.), in recognition of his work on the basic economic problem of how prices operate to balance what producers supply with what buyers want
1984
Sir Richard Stone (U.K.), for his work to develop the systems widely used to measure the performance of national economics
1985
Franco Modigliani (U.S.), for his pioneering work in analyzing the behavior of household savers and the functioning of financial markets
1986
James M. Buchanan (U.S.), for his development of new methods for analyzing economic and political decision-making
1987
Robert M. Solow (U.S.), for seminal contributions to the theory of economic growth
1988
Maurice Allais (France), for his pioneering development of theories to better understand market behavior and the efficient use of resources
1989
Trygve Haavelmo (Norway), for his pioneering work in methods for testing economic theories
1990
Harry M. Markowitz, William F. Sharpe, and Merton H. Miller (all U.S.), whose work provided new tools for weighing the risks and rewards of different investments and for valuing corporate stocks and bonds
1991
Ronald Coase (U.S.), for his pioneering work in how property rights and the cost of doing business affect the economy
1992
Gary S. Becker (U.S.), for “having extended the domain of economic theory to aspects of human behavior which had previously been dealt with—if at all—by other social science disciplines”
1993
Robert W. Fogel and Douglass C. North (both U.S.), for their work in economic history
1994
John F. Nash, John C. Harsanyi (both U.S.), and Reinhard Selten (Germany), for their pioneering work in game theory
1995
Robert E. Lucas, Jr. (U.S.), for having had the greatest influence on macroeconomic research since 1970
1996
James A. Mirrlees (U.K.) and William Vickrey (U.S.), for “their fundamental contributions to the economic theory of incentives”
1997
Robert C. Merton and Myron S. Scholes (both U.S.), for developing a formula that determines the value of stock options and other derivatives
1998
Amartya Sen (India), for his contributions to welfare economics
1999
Robert A. Mundel (U.S.), for his work on monetary dynamics and optimum currency areas
2000
James J. Heckman and Daniel L. McFadden (both U.S.), for developing methods used in statistical analysis of individual and household behavior
2001
George A. Akerlof, A. Michael Spence, and Joseph E. Stiglitz (all U.S.), for market analyses with asymmetric information.
2002
Daniel Kahneman (U.S.) for having integrated insights from psychological research into economic science and Vernon L. Smith (U.S.) for having established laboratory experiments as a tool in empirical economic analysis.
2003
Robert F. Engle (U.S.) and Clive W. J. Granger (UK), for developing statistical tools to improve analysis of stock prices and other data.
2004
Finn E. Kydland (Norway) and Edward C. Prescott (U.S.) “for their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles.” 1901
Emil A. von Behring (Germany), for work on serum therapy against diphtheria
1902
Sir Ronald Ross (U.K.), for work on malaria
1903
Niels R. Finsen (Denmark), for his treatment of lupus vulgaris with concentrated light rays
1904
Ivan P. Pavlov (U.S.S.R.), for work on the physiology of digestion
1905
Robert Koch (Germany), for work on tuberculosis
1906
Camillo Golgi (Italy) and Santiago Ramón y Cajal (Spain), for work on structure of the nervous system
1907
Charles L. A. Laveran (France), for work with protozoa in the generation of disease
1908
Paul Ehrlich (Germany) and Elie Metchnikoff (Russia), for work on immunity
1909
Theodor Kocher (Switzerland), for work on the thyroid gland
1910
Albrecht Kossel (Germany), for achievements in the chemistry of the cell
1911
Allvar Gullstrand (Sweden), for work on the dioptrics of the eye
1912
Alexis Carrel (France), for work on vascular ligature and grafting of blood vessels and organs
1913
Charles Richet (France), for work on anaphylaxy
1914
Robert Bárány (Austria), for work on physiology and pathology of the vestibular system
1919
Jules Bordet (Belgium), for discoveries in connection with immunity
1920
August Krogh (Denmark), for discovery of regulation of capillaries' motor mechanism
1922
In 1923, the 1922 prize was shared by Archibald V. Hill (U.K.), for discovery relating to heat-production in muscles; and Otto Meyerhof (Germany), for correlation between consumption of oxygen and production of lactic acid in muscles
1923
Sir Frederick Banting (Canada) and John J. R. Macleod (Scotland), for discovery of insulin
1924
Willem Einthoven (Netherlands), for discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram
1926
Johannes Fibiger (Denmark), for discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma
1927
Julius Wagner-Jauregg (Austria), for use of malaria inoculation in treatment of dementia paralytica
1928
Charles Nicolle (France), for work on typhus exanthematicus
1929
Christiaan Eijkman (Netherlands), for discovery of the antineuritic vitamins; and Sir Frederick Hopkins (U.K.), for discovery of growth-promoting vitamins
1930
Karl Landsteiner (U.S.), for discovery of human blood groups
1931
Otto H. Warburg (Germany), for discovery of the character and mode of action of the respiratory ferment
1932
Sir Charles Sherrington (U.K.) and Edgar D. Adrian (U.S.), for discoveries of the function of the neuron
1933
Thomas H. Morgan (U.S.), for discoveries on hereditary function of the chromosomes
1934
George H. Whipple, George R. Minot, and William P. Murphy (U.S.), for discovery of liver therapy against anemias
1935
Hans Spemann (Germany), for discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic development
1936
Sir Henry Dale (U.K.) and Otto Loewi (Germany), for discoveries on chemical transmission of nerve impulses
1937
Albert Szent-Györgyi von Nagyrapolt (Hungary), for discoveries on biological combustion
1938
Corneille Heymans (Belgium), for determining importance of sinus and aorta mechanisms in the regulation of respiration
1939
Gerhard Domagk (Germany), for antibacterial effect of prontocilate
1943
Henrik Dam (Denmark) and Edward A. Doisy (U.S.), for analysis of vitamin K
1944
Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Spencer Gasser (both U.S.), for work on functions of the nerve threads
1945
Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain, and Sir Howard Florey (all U.K.), for discovery of penicillin
1946
Herman J. Muller (U.S.), for hereditary effects of X-rays on genes
1947
Carl F. and Gerty T. Cori (U.S.), for work on animal starch metabolism; Bernardo A. Houssay (Argentina), for study of pituitary
1948
Paul Mueller (Switzerland), for discovery of insect-killing properties of DDT
1949
Walter Rudolf Hess (Switzerland), for research on brain control of body; and Antonio Caetano de Abreu Freire Egas Moniz (Portugal), for development of brain operation
1950
Philip S. Hench, Edward C. Kendall (both U.S.), and Tadeus Reichstein (Switzerland), for discoveries about hormones of adrenal cortex
1951
Max Theiler (South Africa ), for development of anti-yellow-fever vaccine
1952
Selman A. Waksman (U.S.), for co-discovery of streptomycin
1953
Fritz A. Lipmann (Germany-U.S.) and Hans Adolph Krebs (Germany-U.K.), for studies of living cells
1954
John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller, and Frederick C. Robbins (all U.S.), for work with cultivation of polio virus
1955
Hugo Theorell (Sweden), for work on oxidation enzymes
1956
****inson W. Richards, Jr., André F. Cournand (both U.S.), and Werner Forssmann (Germany), for new techniques in treating heart disease
1957
Daniel Bovet (Italy), for development of drugs to relieve allergies and relax muscles during surgery
1958
Joshua Lederberg (U.S.), for work with genetic mechanisms; George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum (both U.S.), for discovering how genes transmit hereditary characteristics
1959
Severo Ochoa and Arthur Kornberg (both U.S.), for discoveries related to compounds within chromosomes that play a vital role in heredity
1960
Sir Macfarlane Burnet (Australia) and Peter Brian Medawar (U.K.), for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance
1961
Georg von Bekesy (U.S.), for discoveries about physical mechanisms of stimulation within cochlea
1962
James D. Watson (U.S.), Maurice H. F. Wilkins, and Francis H. C. Crick (both U.K.), for determining structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
1963
Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, Andrew Fielding Huxley (both U.K.), and Sir John Carew Eccles (Australia), for research on nerve cells
1964
Konrad E. Bloch (U.S.) and Feodor Lynen (Germany), for research on mechanism and regulation of cholesterol and fatty-acid metabolism
1965
François Jacob, André Lwoff, and Jacques Monod (all France), for study of regulatory activities in body cells
1966
Charles Brenton Huggins (U.S.), for studies in hormone treatment of cancer of prostate; Francis Peyton Rous (U.S.), for discovery of tumor-producing viruses
1967
Haldan K. Hartline, George Wald (both U.S.), and Ragnar Granit (Sweden), for work on human eye
1968
Robert W. Holley, Har Gobind Khorana, and Marshall W. Nirenberg (all U.S.), for studies of genetic code
1969
Max Delbruck, Alfred D. Hershey, and Salvador E. Luria (all U.S.), for study of mechanism of virus infection in living cells
1970
Julius Axelrod (U.S.), Ulf S. von Euler (Sweden), and Sir Bernard Katz (U.K.), for studies of how nerve impulses are transmitted within the body
1971
Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. (U.S.), for research on how hormones work
1972
Gerald M. Edelman (U.S.), and Rodney R. Porter (U.K.), for research on the chemical structure and nature of antibodies
1973
Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz (both Austria), and Nikolaas Tinbergen (Netherlands), for their studies of individual and social behavior patterns
1974
George E. Palade, Christian de Duve (both U.S.), and Albert Claude (Belgium), for contributions to understanding inner workings of living cells
1975
David Baltimore, Howard M. Temin, and Renato Dulbecco (all U.S.), for work in interaction between tumor viruses and genetic material of the cell
1976
Baruch S. Blumberg and D. Carleton Gajdusek (both U.S.), for discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases
1977
Rosalyn S. Yalow, Roger C. L. Guillemin, and Andrew V. Schally (all U.S.), for research in role of hormones in chemistry of the body
1978
Daniel Nathans, Hamilton Smith (both U.S.), and Werner Arber (Switzerland), for discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics
1979
Allan MacLeod Cormack (U.S.) and Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield (U.K.), for developing computed axial tomography (CAT scan) X-ray technique
1980
Baruj Benacerraf, George D. Snell (both U.S.), and Jean Dausset (France), for discoveries that explain how the structure of cells relates to organ transplants and diseases
1981
Roger W. Sperry, David H. Hubel (both U.S.), and Torsten N. Wiesel (Sweden), for studies vital to understanding the organization and functioning of the brain
1982
Sune Bergstrom, Bengt Samuelsson (both Sweden), and John R. Vane (U.K.), for research in prostaglandins, hormonelike substances involved in a wide range of illnesses
1983
Barbara McClintock (U.S.), for her discovery of mobile genes in the chromosomes of a plant that change the future generations of plants they produce
1984
Cesar Milstein (U.K./Argentina), Georges J. F. Kohler (West Germany ), and Niels K. Jerne (U.K./Denmark), for their work in immunology
1985
Michael S. Brown and Joseph L. Goldstein (both U.S.), for their work, which has drastically widened our understanding of the cholesterol metabolism and increased our possibilities to prevent and treat atherosclerosis and heart attacks
1986
Rita Levi-Montalcini (dual U.S./Italy) and Stanley Cohen (U.S.), for their contributions to the understanding of substances that influence cell growth
1987
Susumu Tonegawa (Japan), for his discoveries of how the body can suddenly marshal its immunological defenses against millions of different disease agents that it has never encountered before
1988
Gertrude B. Elion, George H. Hitchings (both U.S.), and Sir James Black (U.K.), for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment
1989
J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus (both U.S.), for their unifying theory of cancer development
1990
Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas (both U.S.), for their pioneering work in transplants
1991
Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann (both Germany), for their research, particularly for the development of a technique called patch clamp
1992
Edmond H. Fischer and Edwin G. Krebs (both U.S.), for their discovery of a regulatory mechanism affecting almost all cells
1993
Phillip A. Sharp (U.S.) and Richard J. Roberts (U.K.), for their independent discovery in 1977 of “split genes”
1994
Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell (both U.S.), for discovery of G-proteins that help cells respond to outside signals
1995
Edward B. Lewis, Eric F. Wieschaus (both U.S.), and Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (Germany), for studies of the fruit fly that will help explain congenital malformations in humans
1996
Peter C. Doherty (Australia) and Rolf M. Zinkernagel (Switzerland), for discoveries about how the immune system recognizes virus-infected cells
1997
Stanley B. Prusiner (U.S.), for discovery of a new type of germ, called prions, that causes degenerative brain disorders
1998
Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro, and Ferid Murad (all U.S.), for discovering that nitric oxide acts as a signal in the cardiovascular system
1999
Günter Blobel (Germany and U.S.), for discovering that proteins have signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell
2000
Arvid Carlsson (Sweden), Paul Greengard, and Eric Kandel (both U.S.), for discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system
2001
Leland H. Hartwell (U.S.), R. Timothy Hunt, and Paul M. Nurse (both UK), for discoveries concerning control of the cell cycle, which may make new cancer treatments possible.
2002
Sydney Brenner (UK), H. Robert Horvitz (U.S.), and John E. Sulston (UK) for discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death.
2003
Paul C. Lauterbur (U.S.) and Sir Peter Mansfield (UK) for discoveries leading to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
2004
Richard Axel and Linda Buck (both U.S.) “for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system.”





thanks and regards
ajay kataram

[Spoorthi]

really nice info